View source for Benzo(a)pyrene

{{Short description|Carcinogenic compound found in smoke and soot}}
{{Italic title|string=a}}
{{Correct title|reason=bracket|edit=substitution|Benzo[''a'']pyrene}}
{{Chembox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid =443416124
| Name =Benzo[''a'']pyrene
| ImageFile =Benzo-a-pyrene.svg
| ImageSize =
| ImageCaption = [[Skeletal formula]]
| ImageName =Benzo[''a'']pyrene
| ImageFile1 = Benzo(a)pyrene-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
| ImageSize1 =
| ImageCaption1 = [[Ball-and-stick model]]
| ImageFile2 = Benzo(a)pyrene-from-xtal-3D-sf.png
| ImageCaption2 = [[Space-filling model]]
| PIN =Benzo[''pqr'']tetraphene<ref name="bluebook">{{cite book | author=Henri A. Favre, Warren H. Powell | title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 | year=2013 | publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]] | isbn = 978-0-85404-182-4 | page=232}}</ref>
| OtherNames = {{ubl|Benz[''a'']pyrene|Benzo[''a'']pyrene|3,4-Benzpyrene|3,4-Benzopyrene|3,4-Benz[''a'']pyrene|3,4-Benzo[''a'']pyrene|Pentacyclo[10.6.2.0<sup>2,7</sup>.0<sup>9,19</sup>.0<sup>16,20</sup>]icosa-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19-decaene{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}}}
|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 2246
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG =C07535
| InChI =1/C20H12/c1-2-7-17-15(4-1)12-16-9-8-13-5-3-6-14-10-11-18(17)20(16)19(13)14/h1-12H
| InChIKey =FMMWHPNWAFZXNH-UHFFFAOYAQ
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL =31184
| PubChem = 2336
| RTECS = DJ3675000
| UNNumber = 3077, 3082
| UNII = 3417WMA06D
| EINECS = 200-028-5
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI =1S/C20H12/c1-2-7-17-15(4-1)12-16-9-8-13-5-3-6-14-10-11-18(17)20(16)19(13)14/h1-12H
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey =FMMWHPNWAFZXNH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CASNo =50-32-8
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI =29865
| SMILES =c1ccc2c(c1)cc3ccc4cccc5c4c3c2cc5}}
|Section2={{Chembox Properties
| C=20 | H=12
| Density =1.24 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (25&nbsp;°C)
| MeltingPtC = 179 <ref name="crc97">{{cite book | author=William M. Haynes | title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition=97th | year=2016 | publisher=CRC Press | location=Boca Raton | isbn=978-1-4987-5429-3 | pages=3–42 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVezDAAAQBAJ}}</ref>
| MeltingPt_notes =
| BoilingPtC = 495
| BoilingPt_notes =
| Solubility =0.2 to 6.2 μg/L
| MagSus = −135.7·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol}}
| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards
| Hazards_ref =<ref>{{cite web|title=benzo[''a'']pyrene|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/2336#section=Hazards-Identification|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|language=en}}</ref>
<!-- (data page) -->
| ExternalSDS = 
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS07}}{{GHS08}}{{GHS09}}
| GHSSignalWord = Danger
| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|317|340|350|360|410}}
| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|201|202|261|272|273|280|281|302+352|308+313|321|333+313|363|391|405|501}}
}}
}}

'''Benzo[''a'']pyrene''' ('''BaP'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harvey |first=Ronald G. |last2=Lim |first2=Keunpoong |last3=Dai |first3=Qing |date=2004-02-01 |title=A Convenient New Synthesis of Benzo[a]pyrene |url=https://doi.org/10.1021/jo030313n |journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=1372–1373 |doi=10.1021/jo030313n |issn=0022-3263|url-access=subscription }}</ref> or '''B[''a'']P''') is a [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]] (PAH) and the result of incomplete combustion of [[organic matter]] at temperatures between {{convert|300|and|600|°C|°F}}. The ubiquitous compound can be found in coal tar, tobacco smoke and many foods, especially grilled meats. The substance with the formula C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>12</sub> is one of the [[benzopyrene]]s, formed by a [[benzene]] ring fused to [[pyrene]]. Its [[diol]] [[epoxide]] metabolites, more commonly known as BPDE, react with and bind to [[DNA]], resulting in mutations and eventually cancer. It is listed as a [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1 carcinogen]] by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]]. In the 18th century a scrotal cancer of chimney sweepers, the [[chimney sweeps' carcinoma]], was already known to be connected to soot.

== Description ==
Benzo[''a'']pyrene (BaP)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://pubs.acs.org/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-07-11 |website=pubs.acs.org |doi=10.1021/jp054881d}}</ref> is a [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]] found in [[coal tar]] with the formula C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>12</sub>.<ref>{{Cite web |title=benzo[a]pyrene (CHEBI:29865) |url=https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/CHEBI:29865 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.ebi.ac.uk}}</ref> The compound is one of the [[benzopyrene]]s, formed by a [[benzene]] ring fused to [[pyrene]], and is the result of incomplete combustion at temperatures between {{convert|300|°C|°F}} and {{convert|600|°C|°F}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nzila |first1=Alexis |last2=Musa |first2=Musa M. |last3=Afuecheta |first3=Emmanuel |last4=Al-Thukair |first4=Assad |last5=Sankaran |first5=Saravanan |last6=Xiang |first6=Lei |last7=Li |first7=Qing X. |date=2023-01-19 |title=Benzo[A]Pyrene Biodegradation by Multiple and Individual Mesophilic Bacteria under Axenic Conditions and in Soil Samples |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=1855 |doi=10.3390/ijerph20031855 |doi-access=free |pmid=36767220 |pmc=9914810 |issn=1660-4601 }}</ref>

== Sources ==
The main source of atmospheric BaP is residential wood burning.<ref>{{cite web |title=Assessment of Benzo-alpha-pyrene Emissions in the Great Lakes Region |pages=23–24 |url=https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/conference/ei20/session10/asoehl_pres.pdf |access-date=2025-07-06 |archive-date=2023-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618192530/https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/conference/ei20/session10/asoehl_pres.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is also found in [[coal tar]], in [[Motor vehicle emissions|automobile exhaust fumes]] (especially from [[diesel engine]]s), in all smoke resulting from the combustion of organic material (including [[cigarette smoke]]), and in [[charbroil]]ed food.
Data collected in 2024 by the [[European Environment Agency]] from all, except [[Portugal]], EU-27 Member States as well as from [[Norway]] and [[Switzerland]] showed that the highest concentrations of BaP were found in [[eastern Europe]] and [[Italy]], mainly associated with residential heating using coal, wood or derivatives.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-29 |title=Benzo(a)pyrene - BaP |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/air-quality-status-report-2026/benzo-a-pyrene-bap |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.eea.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> Methods of identifying BaP in foods have advanced over the years but difficulties remain in balancing speed with accuracy. Established methods include gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Analytical Methodologies for Benzo[a]pyrene in Foods: A Review of Advances in Sample Preparation and Detection Techniques |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/15/3/591 |access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref> A 2001 [[National Cancer Institute]] study found levels of BaP to be significantly higher in foods that were cooked well-done on the [[barbecue]], particularly [[steak]]s, [[chicken]] with skin, and [[hamburger]]s: Cooked meat products have been shown to contain up to 4&nbsp;ng/g of BaP,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kazerouni | first1 = N | last2 = Sinha | first2 = R | last3 = Hsu | first3 = CH | last4 = Greenberg | first4 = A | last5 = Rothman | first5 = N |display-authors=3 | year = 2002 | title = Analysis of 200 food items for benzo[''a'']pyrene and estimation of its intake in an epidemiologic study | journal = [[Food and Chemical Toxicology]] | volume = 40 | issue = 1| pages = 423–436 | doi = 10.1016/S0278-6915(00)00158-7 | pmid = 11313108 }}</ref> and up to 5.5&nbsp;ng/g in fried chicken<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = BM | last2 = Shim | first2 = GA | date = Aug 2007 | title = Dietary exposure estimation of benzo[''a'']pyrene and cancer risk assessment | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A | volume = 70 | issue = 15–16| pages = 1391–1394 | pmid = 17654259 | doi=10.1080/15287390701434182| bibcode = 2007JTEHA..70.1391L | s2cid = 21302834 }}</ref> and 62.6&nbsp;ng/g in overcooked charcoal barbecued beef.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 16638662 | doi=10.1080/09637480500465436 | volume=56 | issue=8 | title=Determination of benzo[''a'']pyrene in charcoal grilled meat samples by HPLC with fluorescence detection | date=December 2005 | journal=Int J Food Sci Nutr | pages=581–585 | last1 = Aygün | first1 = SF | last2 = Kabadayi | first2 = F| s2cid=35095622 }}</ref> In 2008 the European Food Safety Authority stated that BaP was the only PAH that was regulated in food at the time. However, they stated it was not a suitable standalone indicator for the occurrence of PAHs in food and recommended using the sum of either four or eight PAHs as more suitable indicators for that matter.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-08-04 |title=EFSA opinion on suitable indicators for both the occurrence and toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food {{!}} EFSA |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/news/efsa-opinion-suitable-indicators-both-occurrence-and-toxicity-polycyclic |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.efsa.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> Since 2023 the European Commission Regulation 2023/915 states that processing contaminants of food though PAHs are not allowed to exceed a sum of 4 PAHs for BaP in order to protect public health.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Legislation - Food Safety - European Commission |url=https://food.ec.europa.eu/food-safety/chemical-safety/contaminants/legislation_en |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=food.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>

BaP is discharged in wastewater by industries such as [[smelting|smelter]]s, particularly [[iron and steel]] mills<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, D.C. (2002). "Iron and Steel Manufacturing Point Source Category." ''Code of Federal Regulations,'' [https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=7e2e50f207072b35927561ef22e99dfa&mc=true&node=pt40.31.420&rgn=div5 40 CFR Part 420].</ref> and [[aluminium]] smelters.<ref>EPA (1984). "Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing Point Source Category." ''Code of Federal Regulations,'' [https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=cbb3de2695690bb75aab6eb27d17ccc2&mc=true&node=pt40.31.421&rgn=div5 40 CFR Part 421].</ref>

== History ==
In the 18th century, young British [[chimney sweep]]s who climbed into chimneys suffered from [[chimney sweeps' carcinoma]], a scrotal cancer peculiar to their profession, and this was connected to the effects of [[soot]] in 1775,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pott |first1=Percivall |title=Chirurgical Observations … |date=1775 |publisher=L. Hawes, W. Clarke, and R. Collins |location=London, England |pages=63–68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15htmgEACAAJ&pg=PA63}} From p. 67: "The disease, in these people [i.e., chimney sweeps], seems to derive its origin from a lodgment of soot in the rugae of the scrotum, … "</ref> in the first work of [[occupational cancer]] epidemiology and also the first connection of any [[chemical mixture]] to cancer formation. Frequent [[skin cancer]]s were noted among fuel industry workers in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blackadar |first=Clarke Brian |date=2016 |title=Historical review of the causes of cancer |journal=World Journal of Clinical Oncology |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=54–86 |doi=10.5306/wjco.v7.i1.54 |doi-access=free |pmid=26862491 |pmc=4734938 |issn=2218-4333 }}</ref> In 1933, BaP was determined to be the compound responsible for these cases, and its carcinogenicity was demonstrated when skin tumors occurred in laboratory animals repeatedly painted with coal tar.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cook | first1 = J. W. | last2 = Hewett | first2 = C. L. | last3 = Hieger | first3 = I. | year = 1933 | title = The isolation of a cancer producing Hydrocarbon from coal tar | url = https://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1933/JR/jr9330000395 | journal = J. Chem. Soc. | volume = 1933 | pages = 395–405 | doi = 10.1039/jr9330000395 | url-access = subscription }}</ref> BaP has since been identified as a prime carcinogen in cigarette smoke.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hecht | first1 = SS | year = 1999 | title = Tobacco smoke carcinogens and lung cancer | journal = J Natl Cancer Inst | volume = 91 | issue = 14| pages = 1194–1210 | pmid = 10413421 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/91.14.1194 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Public health authorities distinguish between the addictive effects of nicotine and the carcinogenic substances present in cigarette smoke, such as BaP.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Products |first=Center for Tobacco |date=2026-05-06 |title=Nicotine Is Why Tobacco Products Are Addictive |url=https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/health-effects-tobacco-use/nicotine-why-tobacco-products-are-addictive |journal=FDA |language=en}}</ref>

== Toxicity ==
[[File:Benzo(a)pyrene numbered.png|thumb|right|Benzo[''a'']pyrene, showing the base [[pyrene]] ring and numbering and ring fusion locations according to [[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry]].]]
A 2021 [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) report on PAHs as ambient air pollutants stated that it was not possible to establish if the current WHO guidelines for BaP provided sufficient protection against diseases other than cancer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Human health effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as ambient air pollutants - Report of the Working Group on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons of the Joint Task Force on the Health Aspects of Air Pollution |url=https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289056533 |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref>

=== Carcinogenicity ===
The [[National Toxicology Program]] from the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]] published the Fifteenth Edition Report on Carcinogens, which stated that BaP caused [[Neoplasm|tumors]] in 8 species, including nonhuman primates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: 15 Listings |url=https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/sites/default/files/ntp/roc/content/profiles/polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons.pdf |access-date=2026-06-29}}</ref>

=== Nervous system ===
[[Prenatal exposure]] of BaP in rats is known to affect learning and memory in rodent models. Pregnant rats eating BaP were shown to negatively affect the brain function in the late life of their offspring. At a time when [[synapse]]s are first formed and adjusted in strength by activity, BaP diminished [[NMDA]] receptor-dependent nerve cell activity measured as mRNA expression of the NMDA [[NR2B]] receptor subunit.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2752856|year=2008|last1=McCallister|first1=M. M.|title=Prenatal Exposure to Benzo[''a'']pyrene Impairs Later-Life Cortical Neuronal Function|journal=NeuroToxicology|volume=29|issue=5|pages=846–854|last2=Maguire|first2=M.|last3=Ramesh|first3=A.|last4=Aimin|first4=Q.|last5=Liu|first5=S.|last6=Khoshbouei|first6=H.|last7=Aschner|first7=M.|last8=Ebner|first8=F. F.|last9=Hood|first9=D. B.|display-authors=3|doi=10.1016/j.neuro.2008.07.008|pmid=18761371 |bibcode=2008NeuTx..29..846M }}.</ref>

=== Immune system ===
BaP has an effect on the number of [[white blood cell]]s, inhibiting some of them from differentiating into [[macrophage]]s, the body's first line of defense to fight infections. In 2016, the molecular mechanism was uncovered as damage to the macrophage membrane's lipid raft integrity by decreasing membrane cholesterol at 25%. This means less immunoreceptors [[CD32]] (a member of the Fc family of immunoreceptors) could bind to [[IgG]] and turn the white blood cell into a macrophage. Therefore, macrophage membranes become susceptible to bacterial infections.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Validation of research trajectory 1 of an Exposome framework: Exposure to benzo[''a'']pyrene confers enhanced susceptibility to bacterial infection. | vauthors=Clark RS, Pellom ST, Booker B, Ramesh A, Zhang T, Shanker A, Maguire M, Juarez PD, Patricia MJ, Langston MA, Lichtveld MY, Hood DB |display-authors=3| journal=Environ Research | year=2016 | volume=146 | pages=173–184 | doi=10.1016/j.envres.2015.12.027 | pmid=26765097| pmc=5523512 | bibcode=2016ER....146..173C }}</ref>

=== Reproductive system ===
In experiments with male rats, [[subchronic]] exposure to inhaled BaP has been shown to generally reduce the function of testicles and [[epididymis]] with lower sex steroid/testosterone production and sperm production.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ramesh A1 | first1 = Inyang F | last2 = Lunstra | first2 = DD | last3 = Niaz | first3 = MS | last4 = Kopsombut | first4 = P | last5 = Jones | first5 = KM | last6 = Hood | first6 = DB | last7 = Hills | first7 = ER | last8 = Archibong | first8 = AE |display-authors=3| date = Aug 2008 | title = Alteration of fertility endpoints in adult male F-344 rats by subchronic exposure to inhaled benzo(a)pyrene | journal = Exp Toxicol Pathol | volume = 60 | issue = 4–5| pages = 269–280 | doi = 10.1016/j.etp.2008.02.010 | pmc = 3526104 | pmid = 18499416 | bibcode = 2008EToxP..60..269R }}</ref>

=== Carcinogenicity ===
BaP's metabolites are [[mutagen]]ic and highly [[carcinogen]]ic, and it is listed as a [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1 carcinogen]] by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]]. Chemical agents and related occupations, Volume 10, A review of Human Carcinogens, IARC Monographs, Lyon France 2009 <ref>A review of human carcinogens—part F: chemical agents and related occupations</ref>

In June 2016, BaP was added as benzo[''def'']chrysene to the [[Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals|REACH]] Candidate List of [[Substance of very high concern|Substances of very high concern]] for Authorisation.<ref>{{cite web|last1=European Chemicals Agency|title=ED/21/2016|url=http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/4b054c5b-8511-4a30-8ef8-35ab143b4fd0|website=ECHA|access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref>

Numerous studies since the 1970s have documented links between BaP and cancers.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Fw_G7Sk382IC&q=Benzo%28a%29pyrene-7%2C8-dihydrodiol-9%2C10-epoxide+cas&pg=PA102|first = W.|last = Kleiböhmer|publisher = [[Elsevier]]|year = 2001|chapter = Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Metabolites|pages = 99–122|title = Environmental Analysis (Volume 3 of Handbook of Analytical Separations)|isbn = 978-0-08-050576-3}}</ref> It has been more difficult to link cancers to specific BaP sources, especially in humans, and difficult to quantify risks posed by various methods of exposure (inhalation or ingestion).<ref>{{cite journal | title=Lung Cancer Risk After Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: A Review and Meta-Analysis | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | volume=112 | issue=9 | pages=970–978 | pmc=1247189 | year=2004 | last1=Armstrong | first1=B. | last2=Hutchinson | first2=E. | last3=Unwin | first3=J. | last4=Fletcher | first4=T. | pmid=15198916 | doi=10.1289/ehp.6895 | bibcode=2004EnvHP.112..970A }}</ref> A link between [[vitamin A]] deficiency and [[emphysema]] in [[smoking|smokers]] was described in 2005 to be due to BaP, which induces vitamin A deficiency in rats.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Benzopyrene and Vitamin A deficiency | work=Researcher links cigarettes, vitamin A and emphysema | url=http://www.tobacco.org/news/171229.html| access-date=March 5, 2005 }}</ref>

A 1996 study provided molecular evidence linking components in [[tobacco smoke]] to [[lung cancer]]. BaP was shown to cause genetic damage in lung cells that was identical to the damage observed in the [[DNA]] of most malignant [[lung]] tumours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Denissenko |first1=M. F. |last2=Pao |first2=A. |last3=Tang |first3=M. |last4=Pfeifer |first4=G. P. |date=1996-10-18 |title=Preferential formation of benzo[''a'']pyrene adducts at lung cancer mutational hotspots in P53 |journal=Science |volume=274 |issue=5286 |pages=430–432 |doi=10.1126/science.274.5286.430 |pmid=8832894|bibcode=1996Sci...274..430D |s2cid=3589066 }}</ref>

Regular consumption of [[cooked meats]] has been epidemiologically associated with increased levels of [[colon cancer]]<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 12351160 | volume=506–507 | title=Well-done red meat, metabolic phenotypes and colorectal cancer in Hawaii | date=September 2002 | journal=Mutat. Res. | pages=205–214 | last1 = Le Marchand | first1 = L | last2 = Hankin | first2 = JH | last3 = Pierce | first3 = LM | display-authors = etal | doi=10.1016/s0027-5107(02)00167-7 | bibcode=2002MRFMM.506..205L }}</ref> (although this in itself does not ''prove'' carcinogenicity),<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Truswell | first1 = AS | date = Mar 2002 | title = Meat consumption and cancer of the large bowel | journal = European Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 56 | issue = Suppl 1| pages = S19–S24 | pmid = 11965518 | doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601349| s2cid = 23886438 | doi-access =  }}</ref>
A 2005 NCI study found an increased risk of [[colorectal adenoma]]s was associated with BaP intake, and more strongly with BaP intake from all foods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=Rashmi |last2=Kulldorff |first2=Martin |last3=Gunter |first3=Marc J. |last4=Strickland |first4=Paul |last5=Rothman |first5=Nathaniel |display-authors=3|date=August 2005 |title=Dietary benzo[''a'']pyrene intake and risk of colorectal adenoma |journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=2030–2034 |doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-04-0854 |pmid=16103456|s2cid=33819830 |doi-access=free }}</ref> 

The detoxification enzymes cytochrome P450 [[CYP1A1|1A1 (CYP1A1)]] and cytochrome P450 [[CYP1B1|1B1 (CYP1B1)]] are both protective and necessary for benzo[''a'']pyrene toxicity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shiizaki |first1=Kazuhiro |last2=Kawanishi |first2=Masanobu |last3=Yagi |first3=Takashi |date=2017-04-10 |title=Modulation of benzo[a]pyrene–DNA adduct formation by CYP1 inducer and inhibitor |journal=Genes and Environment |language=en |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=14 |doi=10.1186/s41021-017-0076-x |doi-access=free |issn=1880-7062 |pmc=5385587 |pmid=28405246 |bibcode=2017GeneE..39...14S }}</ref> Experiments with strains of mice engineered to remove ([[gene knockout|knockout]]) CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 reveal that CYP1A1 primarily acts to protect mammals from low doses of BaP, and that removing this protection accumulates large concentrations of BaP. Unless CYP1B1 is also knocked out, toxicity results from the [[bioactivation]] of BaP to benzo[''a'']pyrene -7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide, the ultimate toxic compound.<ref>Data presented by [[Daniel W. Nebert]] in research seminars 2007</ref>{{better source|date=July 2016}}

=== Interaction with DNA ===
[[File:Benzo(a)pyrene metabolism.svg|thumb |center |540px |Metabolism of benzo<nowiki>[</nowiki>''a''<nowiki>]</nowiki>pyrene yielding the [[carcinogenic]] benzo<nowiki>[</nowiki>''a''<nowiki>]</nowiki>pyren-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide.]]
[[File:Benzopyrene DNA adduct 1JDG.png|thumb |right |200px |A [[DNA adduct]] (at center) of benzo[''a'']pyrene, the major [[mutagen]] in [[tobacco smoking|tobacco smoke]].<ref>Created from [http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/cgi/explore.cgi?pdbId=1JDG PDB 1JDG] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922150848/http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/cgi/explore.cgi?pdbId=1JDG |date=2008-09-22 }}</ref>]]
Properly speaking, BaP is a [[procarcinogen]], meaning that its mechanism of [[carcinogenesis]] depends on its enzymatic metabolism to BaP [[diol]] [[epoxide]]<ref name="DB-19730201">{{cite thesis |last=Bogdan |first=Dennis Paul|title=Interactions Of Benzopyrene And Nucleic Acids In The Presence Of A Mixed-Function Oxidase System - Ph.D. Dissertation (requires login). |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/302781013 |id={{ProQuest|302781013}} |isbn=979-8-6610-2135-9 |date=February 1, 1973 |publisher=[[University at Buffalo|State University of New York at Buffalo]] |access-date=May 9, 2021 }}</ref> It [[Intercalation (biochemistry)|intercalates]] in [[DNA]], and the electrophilic epoxide is attacked by nucleophilic [[guanine]] bases, forming a bulky guanine adduct.<ref name="DB-19730201" />
[[File:DG rxn with BPDE.jpg|DG rxn with BPDE]]

[[X-ray crystallography|X-ray crystallographic]] and [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] structure studies have shown how this binding distorts the DNA<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Volk |first1=David E. |last2=Thiviyanathan |first2=Varatharasa |last3=Rice |first3=Jeffrey S. |last4=Luxon |first4=Bruce A. |last5=Shah |first5=Jamshed H. |last6=Yagi |first6=Haruhiko |last7=Sayer |first7=Jane M. |last8=Yeh |first8=Herman J. C. |last9=Jerina |first9=Donald M. |last10=Gorenstein |first10=David G. |display-authors=3|date=2003-02-18 |title=Solution structure of a cis-opened (10R)-N6-deoxyadenosine adduct of (9S,10R)-9,10-epoxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[''a'']pyrene in a DNA duplex |journal=Biochemistry |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1410–1420 |doi=10.1021/bi026745u |pmid=12578353}}</ref> by perturbing the double-helical DNA structure. This disrupts the normal process of copying DNA and induces mutations, which explains the occurrence of [[cancer]] after exposure. This mechanism of action is similar to that of [[aflatoxin]] which binds to the N7 position of guanine.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eaton |first1=D. L. |last2=Gallagher |first2=E. P. |date=1994 |title=Mechanisms of aflatoxin carcinogenesis |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |volume=34 |pages=135–172 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pa.34.040194.001031 |pmid=8042848}}</ref>

There are indications that benzo[''a'']pyrene diol epoxide specifically targets the protective [[p53]] gene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pfeifer |first1=Gerd P. |last2=Denissenko |first2=Mikhail F. |last3=Olivier |first3=Magali |last4=Tretyakova |first4=Natalia |last5=Hecht |first5=Stephen S. |last6=Hainaut |first6=Pierre |display-authors=3|date=2002-10-21 |title=Tobacco smoke carcinogens, DNA damage and p53 mutations in smoking-associated cancers |journal=Oncogene |volume=21 |issue=48 |pages=7435–7451 |doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1205803 |pmid=12379884|s2cid=6134471 }}</ref> This gene is a [[transcription factor]] that regulates the [[cell cycle]] and hence functions as a [[tumor suppressor]]. By inducing G ([[guanine]]) to T ([[thymidine]]) [[transversion]]s in transversion hotspots within [[p53]], there is a probability that benzo[''a'']pyrene diol epoxide inactivates the tumor suppression ability in certain cells, leading to cancer.

[[(+)-Benzo(a)pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide|Benzo[''a'']pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide]] is the carcinogenic product of three enzymatic reactions:<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jiang | first1 = Hao | last2 = Gelhaus | first2 = Stacy L. | last3 = Mangal | first3 = Dipti | last4 = Harvey | first4 = Ronald G. | last5 = Blair | first5 = Ian A. | last6 = Penning | first6 = Trevor M. |display-authors=3| year = 2007 | title = Metabolism of Benzo[''a'']pyrene in Human Bronchoalveolar H358 Cells Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry | journal = Chem. Res. Toxicol. | volume = 20 | issue = 9| pages = 1331–1341 | pmc=2423818 | pmid=17702526 | doi=10.1021/tx700107z}}</ref>
# Benzo[''a'']pyrene is first oxidized by [[cytochrome P450]] [[Cytochrome P450, family 1, member A1|1A1]] to form a variety of products, including (+)-benzo[''a'']pyrene-7,8-epoxide.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Shou | first1 = M | last2 = Gonzalez | first2 = FJ | last3 = Gelboin | first3 = HV |author3-link=Harry Gelboin | date = December 1996 | title = Stereoselective epoxidation and hydration at the K-region of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by cDNA-expressed cytochromes P450 1A1, 1A2, and epoxide hydrolase | journal = Biochemistry | volume = 35 | issue = 49| pages = 15807–15813 | doi=10.1021/bi962042z | pmid=8961944 | bibcode = 1996Bioc...3515807S }}</ref>
# This product is metabolized by [[epoxide hydrolase]], opening up the [[epoxide]] ring to yield (−)-benzo[''a'']pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol.
# The ultimate carcinogen is formed after another reaction with [[Cytochrome P450 oxidase|cytochrome P450]] 1A1 to yield the (+)-benzo[''a'']pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide. It is this diol epoxide that covalently binds to DNA.

BaP induces cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) by binding to the AHR ([[aryl hydrocarbon receptor]]) in the cytosol.<ref name="Whitlock">{{Cite journal| last = Whitlock | first = JP Jr. | title = Induction of cytochrome P4501A1 | journal = Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology | volume = 39 | pages = 103–125 |date = April 1999| doi = 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.39.1.103 | pmid = 10331078}}</ref> Upon binding the transformed receptor translocates to the nucleus where it dimerises with ARNT ([[aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator]]) and then binds [[xenobiotic response elements]] (XREs) in DNA located upstream of certain genes. This process increases [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]] of certain genes, notably ''CYP1A1'', followed by increased CYP1A1 protein production.<ref name="Whitlock" /> This process is similar to induction of CYP1A1 by certain [[polychlorinated biphenyl]]s and [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|dioxins]]. Seemingly, CYP1A1 activity in the intestinal mucosa prevents major amounts of ingested benzo[''a'']pyrene to enter portal blood and systemic circulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uno |first1=S. |year=2008 |title=Basal and inducible CYP1 mRNA quantitation and protein localization throughout the mouse gastrointestinal tract.|journal=Free Radic Biol Med |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=570–583|pmid=17997381 |doi= 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.10.044|last2=Dragin|first2=N |last3=Miller |first3=ML |pmc=2754765|display-authors=etal |bibcode=2008FRBM...44..570U }}</ref> Intestinal, but not hepatic, expression of CYP1A1 depends on TOLL-like receptor 2 ([[TLR2]]),<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Do| first1 = KN |last2=Fink|first2=LN |last3=Jensen |first3=TE |last4=Gautier |first4=L | last5=Parlesak |first5=A |display-authors=3|year=2012 |title = TLR2 controls intestinal carcinogen detoxication by CYP1A1. | journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 7 | issue = 3 | article-number = e32309 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0032309 | pmid = 22442665 | pmc=3307708| bibcode = 2012PLoSO...732309D | doi-access = free }}</ref> which is a eukaryotic receptor for bacterial surface structures such as [[lipoteichoic acid]].

Moreover, BaP has been found to activate a transposon, [[Retrotransposon|LINE1]], in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stribinskis | first1 = Vilius | last2 = Ramos | first2 = Kenneth S. | year = 2006 | title = Activation of Human Long Interspersed Nuclear Element 1 Retrotransposition by Benzo(a)pyrene, a Ubiquitous Environmental Carcinogen | journal = Cancer Res | volume = 66 | issue = 5| pages = 2616–2620 | doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-05-3478 | pmid = 16510580 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Nucleotide excision repair==
As illustrated above, (+)-benzo[''a'']pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE) forms bulky covalent [[DNA adduct]]s with [[guanine]]s. Most of these adducts can be efficiently eliminated from DNA by the process of [[nucleotide excision repair]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Wentao |last2=Hu |first2=Jinchuan |last3=Adebali |first3=Ogun |last4=Adar |first4=Sheera |last5=Yang |first5=Yanyan |last6=Chiou |first6=Yi-Ying |last7=Sancar |first7=Aziz |display-authors=3|date=2017-06-27 |title=Human genome-wide repair map of DNA damage caused by the cigarette smoke carcinogen benzo[''a'']pyrene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=114 |issue=26 |pages=6752–6757 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1706021114 |pmc=5495276 |pmid=28607059|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.6752L |doi-access=free }}</ref> Those adducts that are not removed can cause errors during [[DNA replication]] leading to carcinogenic [[mutation]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Benzo[a]pyrene or PAHs: toxicological overview |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/benzoapyrene-properties-incident-management-and-toxicology/benzoapyrene-or-pahs-toxicological-overview |access-date=2026-06-29 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Benzopyrene]]
* [[Benzo(e)pyrene|Benzo[''e'']pyrene]]
* [[Pyrene]], a four-ring analogue
* [[Toxification]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{ICSC|0104|01}}
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbons National Pollutant Inventory – Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Fact Sheet]
* {{Cite web | title=Lung cancer as consequence by Benzopyrene in smokers | work=Lung Cancer | url=http://www.sarnia.com/groups/antidrug/mjmeds/mjcancr.html | access-date=March 5, 2005 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414175548/http://www.sarnia.com/groups/antidrug/mjmeds/mjcancr.html | archive-date=April 14, 2005 }}
* {{Cite web| title=Levels of Benzopyrene in Burnt toasts| work=Guardian Unlimited, Special reports: Close encounters| url=https://www.theguardian.com/chemicalworld/story/0,14534,1219603,00.html | access-date=March 5, 2005 }}
* {{Cite journal| title=Crystal and molecular structure of a benzo[''a'']pyrene-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide N2-deoxyguanosine adduct: Absolute configuration and conformation | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume=101 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0307305101 | year=2004 | last1 = Karle | first1 = I. L. | issue=6| pages=1433–1438| pmid=14757823 | pmc=341736| bibcode=2004PNAS..101.1433K| doi-access=free}}<!---
* {{Cite web|title=Benzopyrene in Barbeque |work=Newhouse A1 |url=http://www.newhousenews.com/archive/seeman052004.html |access-date=March 5, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050216003544/http://www.newhousenews.com/archive/seeman052004.html |archive-date=February 16, 2005 }}
* {{Cite web|title=DNA interaction with Benzopyrene |work=DNA |url=http://www.mybiology.com/chime/dna_benzopyrene/dna_benzopyrene_text.htm |access-date=March 5, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041223072159/http://www.mybiology.com/chime/dna_benzopyrene/dna_benzopyrene_text.htm |archive-date=December 23, 2004 }}-->


{{PAHs}}
{{Aryl hydrocarbon receptor modulators}}

[[Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens]]
[[Category:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]]
[[Category:PBT substances]]